Mitchell, T.; Cohen, W.; Hruscha, E.; Talukdar, P.; Betteridge, J.; Carlson, A.; Dalvi, B.; Gardner, M.; Kisiel, B.; Krishnamurthy, J.; Lao, N.; Mazaitis, K.; Mohammad, T.; Nakashole, N.; Platanios, E.; Ritter, A.; Samadi, M.; Settles, B.; Wang, R.; Wijaya, D.; Gupta, A.; Chen, X.; Saparov, A.; Greaves, M. & Welling, J.: Never-Ending Learning. AAAI. 2015
[Volltext]

Lehmann, J. & Voelker, J.: An Introduction to Ontology Learning. In: Lehmann, J. & Voelker, J. (Hrsg.): Perspectives on Ontology Learning. AKA / IOS Press, 2014, S. ix-xvi
[Volltext]

Pan, J. Z. (Hrsg.): Ontology-Driven Software Development. Berlin [u.a.]: Springer, 2013
[Volltext]

d'Aquin, M. & Motta, E.: Extracting relevant questions to an RDF dataset using formal concept analysis. Proceedings of the sixth international conference on Knowledge capture. New York, NY, USA: ACM, 2011, S. 121-128
[Volltext]
With the rise of linked data, more and more semantically described information is being published online according to the principles and technologies of the Semantic Web (especially, RDF and SPARQL). The use of such standard technologies means that this data should be exploitable, integrable and reusable straight away. However, once a potentially interesting dataset has been discovered, significant efforts are currently required in order to understand its schema, its content, the way to query it and what it can answer. In this paper, we propose a method and a tool to automatically discover questions that can be answered by an RDF dataset. We use formal concept analysis to build a hierarchy of meaningful sets of entities from a dataset. These sets of entities represent answers, which common characteristics represent the clauses of the corresponding questions. This hierarchy can then be used as a querying interface, proposing questions of varying levels of granularity and specificity to the user. A major issue is however that thousands of questions can be included in this hierarchy. Based on an empirical analysis and using metrics inspired both from formal concept analysis and from ontology summarization, we devise an approach for identifying relevant questions to act as a starting point to the navigation in the question hierarchy.

Gasevic, D.; Zouaq, A.; Torniai, C.; Jovanovic, J. & Hatala, M.: An Approach to Folksonomy-based Ontology Maintenance for Learning Environments. In: IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies 99 (2011), Nr. 1,
[Volltext]

Plangprasopchok, A.; Lerman, K. & Getoor, L.: A Probabilistic Approach for Learning Folksonomies from Structured Data. Proceedings of the 4th ACM Web Search and Data Mining Conference. 2010
[Volltext]
Learning structured representations has emerged as an important problem in many domains, including document and Web data mining, bioinformatics, and image analysis. One approach to learning complex structures is to integrate many smaller, incomplete and noisy structure fragments. In this work, we present an unsupervised probabilistic approach that extends affinity propagation to combine the small ontological fragments into a collection of integrated, consistent, and larger folksonomies. This is a challenging task because the method must aggregate similar structures while avoiding structural inconsistencies and handling noise. We validate the approach on a real-world social media dataset, comprised of shallow personal hierarchies specified by many individual users, collected from the photosharing website Flickr. Our empirical results show that our proposed approach is able to construct deeper and denser structures, compared to an approach using only the standard affinity propagation algorithm. Additionally, the approach yields better overall integration quality than a state-of-the-art approach based on incremental relational clustering.

Reichle, R.: Information Exchange and Fusion in Dynamic and Heterogeneous Distributed Environments. Wilhelmshöher Allee 73, 34121 Kassel, Germany, University of Kassel, Fachbereich 16: Elektrotechnik/Informatik, Distributed Systems Group, 2010
[Volltext]
Context awareness, dynamic reconfiguration at runtime and heterogeneity are key characteristics of future distributed systems, particularly in ubiquitous and mobile computing scenarios. The main contributions of this dissertation are theoretical as well as architectural concepts facilitating information exchange and fusion in heterogeneous and dynamic distributed environments. Our main focus is on bridging the heterogeneity issues and, at the same time, considering uncertain, imprecise and unreliable sensor information in information fusion and reasoning approaches. A domain ontology is used to establish a common vocabulary for the exchanged information. We thereby explicitly support different representations for the same kind of information and provide Inter-Representation Operations that convert between them. Special account is taken of the conversion of associated meta-data that express uncertainty and impreciseness. The Unscented Transformation, for example, is applied to propagate Gaussian normal distributions across highly non-linear Inter-Representation Operations. Uncertain sensor information is fused using the Dempster-Shafer Theory of Evidence as it allows explicit modelling of partial and complete ignorance. We also show how to incorporate the Dempster-Shafer Theory of Evidence into probabilistic reasoning schemes such as Hidden Markov Models in order to be able to consider the uncertainty of sensor information when deriving high-level information from low-level data. For all these concepts we provide architectural support as a guideline for developers of innovative information exchange and fusion infrastructures that are particularly targeted at heterogeneous dynamic environments. Two case studies serve as proof of concept. The first case study focuses on heterogeneous autonomous robots that have to spontaneously form a cooperative team in order to achieve a common goal. The second case study is concerned with an approach for user activity recognition which serves as baseline for a context-aware adaptive application. Both case studies demonstrate the viability and strengths of the proposed solution and emphasize that the Dempster-Shafer Theory of Evidence should be preferred to pure probability theory in applications involving non-linear Inter-Representation Operations.

Solskinnsbakk, G. & Gulla, J.: A Hybrid Approach to Constructing Tag Hierarchies. In: Meersman, R.; Dillon, T. & Herrero, P. (Hrsg.): On the Move to Meaningful Internet Systems, OTM 2010. Berlin / Heidelberg: Springer, 2010 (Lecture Notes in Computer Science 6427), S. 975-982
[Volltext]
Folksonomies are becoming increasingly popular. They contain large amounts of data which can be mined and utilized for many tasks like visualization, browsing, information retrieval etc. An inherent problem of folksonomies is the lack of structure. In this paper we present an unsupervised approach for generating such structure based on a combination of association rule mining and the underlying tagged material. Using the underlying tagged material we generate a semantic representation of each tag. The semantic representation of the tags is an integral component of the structure generated. The experiment presented in this paper shows promising results with tag structures that correspond well with human judgment.

Staab, S. & Studer, R.: Handbook on ontologies. Berlin: Springer, 2009
[Volltext]
An ontology is a formal description of concepts and relationships that can exist for a community of human and/or machine agents. This book considers ontology languages, ontology engineering methods, example ontologies, infrastructures and technologies for ontologies, and how to bring this all into ontology-based infrastructures and applications.

Kim, H. L.; Scerri, S.; Breslin, J. G.; Decker, S. & Kim, H. G.: The State of the Art in Tag Ontologies: A Semantic Model for Tagging and Folksonomies. Proceedings of the 2008 International Conference on Dublin Core and Metadata Applications. Berlin, Deutschland: Dublin Core Metadata Initiative, 2008, S. 128-137

Baader, F.; Ganter, B.; Sertkaya, B. & Sattler, U.: Completing description logic knowledge bases using formal concept analysis. Proceedings of the 20th international joint conference on Artifical intelligence. San Francisco, CA, USA: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers Inc., 2007, S. 230-235
[Volltext]
We propose an approach for extending both the terminological and the assertional part of a Description Logic knowledge base by using information provided by the knowledge base and by a domain expert. The use of techniques from Formal Concept Analysis ensures that, on the one hand, the interaction with the expert is kept to a minimum, and, on the other hand, we can show that the extended knowledge base is complete in a certain, well-defined sense.

Suchanek, F. M.; Kasneci, G. & Weikum, G.: YAGO: a core of semantic knowledge. Proceedings of the 16th international conference on World Wide Web. New York, NY, USA: ACM, 2007, S. 697-706
[Volltext]
We present YAGO, a light-weight and extensible ontology with high coverage and quality. YAGO builds on entities and relations and currently contains more than 1 million entities and 5 million facts. This includes the Is-A hierarchy as well as non-taxonomic relations between entities (such as HASONEPRIZE). The facts have been automatically extracted from Wikipedia and unified with WordNet, using a carefully designed combination of rule-based and heuristic methods described in this paper. The resulting knowledge base is a major step beyond WordNet: in <i>quality</i> by adding knowledge about individuals like persons, organizations, products, etc. with their semantic relationships - and in <i>quantity</i> by increasing the number of facts by more than an order of magnitude. Our empirical evaluation of fact correctness shows an accuracy of about 95%. YAGO is based on a logically clean model, which is decidable, extensible, and compatible with RDFS. Finally, we show how YAGO can be further extended by state-of-the-art information extraction techniques.

Afsharchi, M. & Far, B. H.: Automated ontology evolution in a multi-agent system. Proceedings of the 1st international conference on Scalable information systems. New York, NY, USA: ACM, 2006InfoScale '06
[Volltext]
This research addresses the formation of new concepts and their corresponding ontology in a multi-agent system where individual autonomous agents try to learn new concepts by consulting several other agents. In this research individual agents create and learn their distinct conceptualization and rather than a commitment to a common ontology they use their own ontologies. In this paper multi-agent supervised learning of concepts among individual agents with diverse conceptualization and different ontologies is introduced and demonstrated through an intuitive example in which supervisors are other agents rather than a human.

Christiaens, S.: Metadata Mechanisms: From Ontology to Folksonomy ... and Back. Lecture Notes in Computer Science: On the Move to Meaningful Internet Systems 2006: OTM 2006 Workshops. Springer, 2006
[Volltext]
In this paper we give a brief overview of different metadata mechanisms (like ontologies and folksonomies) and how they relate to each other. We identify major strengths and weaknesses of these mechanisms. We claim that these mechanisms can be classified from restricted (e.g., ontology) to free (e.g., free text tagging). In our view, these mechanisms should not be used in isolation, but rather as complementary solutions, in a continuous process wherein the strong points of one increase the semantic depth of the other. We give an overview of early active research already going on in this direction and propose that methodologies to support this process be developed. We demonstrate a possible approach, in which we mix tagging, taxonomy and ontology.

Elsenbroich, C.; Kutz, O. & Sattler, U.: A case for abductive reasoning over ontologies. In: Grau, B. C.; Hitzler, P.; Shankey, C. & Wallace, E. (Hrsg.): Proceedings of the OWLED*06 Workshop on OWL: Experiences and Directions. 2006 (CEUR-WS.org 216)
[Volltext]
We argue for the usefulness of abductive reasoning in the context of ontologies. We discuss several applicaton scenarios in which various forms of abduction would be useful, introduce corresponding abductive reasoning tasks, give examples, and begin to develop the formal apparatus needed to employ abductive inference in expressive description logics.

Hoser, B.; Hotho, A.; Jäschke, R.; Schmitz, C. & Stumme, G.: Semantic Network Analysis of Ontologies. In: Sure, Y. & Domingue, J. (Hrsg.): The Semantic Web: Research and Applications. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer, 2006 (Lecture Notes in Computer Science 4011), S. 514-529
[Volltext]
A key argument for modeling knowledge in ontologies is the easy reuse and re-engineering of the knowledge. However, current ontology engineering tools provide only basic functionalities for analyzing ontologies. Since ontologies can be considered as graphs, graph analysis techniques are a suitable answer for this need. Graph analysis has been performed by sociologists for over 60 years, and resulted in the vivid research area of Social Network Analysis (SNA).While social network structures currently receive high attention in the Semantic Web community, there are only very few SNA applications, and virtually none for analyzing the structure of ontologies. We illustrate the benefits of applying SNA to ontologies and the Semantic Web, and discuss which research topics arise on the edge between the two areas. In particular, we discuss how different notions of centrality describe the core content and structure of an ontology. From the rather simple notion of degree centrality over betweenness centrality to the more complex eigenvector centrality, we illustrate the insights these measures provide on two ontologies, which are different in purpose, scope, and size.

Schmitz, C.; Hotho, A.; Jäschke, R. & Stumme, G.: Content Aggregation on Knowledge Bases using Graph Clustering. In: Sure, Y. & Domingue, J. (Hrsg.): The Semantic Web: Research and Applications. Heidelberg: Springer, 2006 (LNAI 4011), S. 530-544
[Volltext]
Recently, research projects such as PADLR and SWAP
have developed tools like Edutella or Bibster, which are targeted at
establishing peer-to-peer knowledge management (P2PKM) systems. In
such a system, it is necessary to obtain provide brief semantic
descriptions of peers, so that routing algorithms or matchmaking
processes can make decisions about which communities peers should
belong to, or to which peers a given query should be forwarded.
This paper provides a graph clustering technique on
knowledge bases for that purpose. Using this clustering, we can show
that our strategy requires up to 58% fewer queries than the
baselines to yield full recall in a bibliographic P2PKM scenario.

Stumme, G.: Ontology Merging with Formal Concept Analysis. In: Kalfoglou, Y.; Schorlemmer, W. M.; Sheth, A. P.; Staab, S. & Uschold, M. (Hrsg.): Semantic Interoperability and Integration. IBFI, Schloss Dagstuhl, Germany, 2005 (Dagstuhl Seminar Proceedings 04391)
[Volltext]

Noy, N. F. & Klein, M.: Ontology Evolution: Not the Same as Schema Evolution. In: Knowledge and Information Systems 6 (2004), Nr. 4, S. 428-440
[Volltext]
As ontology development becomes a more ubiquitous and collaborative process, ontology versioning and evolution becomes an important area of ontology research. The many similarities between database-schema evolution and ontology evolution will allow us to build on the extensive research in schema evolution. However, there are also important differences between database schemas and ontologies. The differences stem from different usage paradigms, the presence of explicit semantics and different knowledge models. A lot of problems that existed only in theory in database research come to the forefront as practical problems in ontology evolution. These differences have important implications for the development of ontology-evolution frameworks: The traditional distinction between versioning and evolution is not applicable to ontologies. There are several dimensions along which compatibility between versions must be considered. The set of change operations for ontologies is different. We must develop automatic techniques for finding similarities and differences between versions.

Hearst, M. A.: Automatic acquisition of hyponyms from large text corpora. Proceedings of the 14th conference on Computational linguistics. Stroudsburg, PA, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics, 1992 (2), S. 539-545
[Volltext]
We describe a method for the automatic acquisition of the hyponymy lexical relation from unrestricted text. Two goals motivate the approach: (i) avoidance of the need for pre-encoded knowledge and (ii) applicability across a wide range of text. We identify a set of lexico-syntactic patterns that are easily recognizable, that occur frequently and across text genre boundaries, and that indisputably indicate the lexical relation of interest. We describe a method for discovering these patterns and suggest that other lexical relations will also be acquirable in this way. A subset of the acquisition algorithm is implemented and the results are used to augment and critique the structure of a large hand-built thesaurus. Extensions and applications to areas such as information retrieval are suggested.